Judaism and the law

Judaism’s relationship with law was fundamentally about covenant identity rather than earning divine favor. Jews followed the Law because they had already received God’s favor—they were chosen as God’s special people, and the Law showed them how to live up to this calling.[1] Keeping the Law was typically considered a great joy rather than a dreaded obligation.[1]

The Law addressed both cultic and communal dimensions of life, governing worship practices and relationships with neighbors.[1] Some laws—prohibitions against murder, theft, and false witness—aligned with broader cultural values. Others, however, functioned as distinctive markers of Jewish identity. Circumcision was interpreted as the “sign of the covenant,” distinguishing Jews as God’s chosen people.[1] Similarly, the Sabbath required rest from work, allowing Jews to relax with family, share meals, and worship together.[1] Dietary restrictions prohibiting pork and shellfish[1] further set Jews apart from surrounding peoples.

The vast majority of Jews regarded themselves and many others as adequately adhering to the law.[2] Importantly, obedience could be considered regular even when interrupted by transgression, since the law itself provided means of atonement that restored transgressors to right standing within the covenant community.[2]

By the intertestamental period, Jewish understanding shifted. Rather than making the Law meaningful for their own day, Jews increasingly stressed its ceremonial prescriptions, emphasizing almsgiving, festivals, ritual prayers, and temple rites.[3] The Pharisees’ concern for the Law, including their development of oral interpretations, positioned them to maintain influence in Jewish life.[3] This framework—law as both identity marker and path to covenant faithfulness—shaped the religious landscape Jesus encountered.

[1] Bart D. Ehrman, A Brief Introduction to the New Testament (New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021), 41–42.
[2] J. David Stark, “Law in Second Temple Judaism,” in The Lexham Bible Dictionary, ed. John D. Barry et al. (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016). [See here, here.]
[3] J.I. Packer, Merrill Chapin Tenney, and William White Jr., Nelson’s Illustrated Manners and Customs of the Bible (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 1997), 392.

Judaism during Jesus’ time

Judaism during Jesus’ time was fractured into competing movements, each interpreting Jewish law and identity differently. Four main sects dominated: the Sadducees, Pharisees, Zealots, and Essenes.[1]

The Pharisees pursued spiritual purity through strict observance of Old Testament law and their own religious traditions.[1] Though numbering only about six thousand, they wielded enormous influence among ordinary people.[1] Their distinctive practice involved treating oral law—interpretive traditions—with authority nearly equal to the Torah itself, a position the Sadducees rejected.[2] They embraced belief in angels, spirits, and resurrection of the dead.[1]

The Sadducees represented a fundamentally different approach. Drawn from the Jewish aristocracy and powerful priestly families,[1] they dominated the Sanhedrin, the ruling council.[1] They recognized only the five books of Moses as authoritative, rejected Pharisaic traditions, and consequently denied beliefs in resurrection, final judgment, angels, and spirits.[1] Their cooperative stance toward Roman authorities reflected their dependence on Rome for local power.[1]

The Zealots held beliefs similar to the Pharisees but were passionately committed to human freedom, recognizing only God as their sovereign.[1] They were revolutionaries dedicated to overthrowing Roman rule and refused to pay Roman taxes.[3]

The Essenes were ascetic separatists and the most radical religiously, viewing both the Jerusalem temple and the Pharisees as corrupt.[1] The Dead Sea Scrolls, discovered at Qumran, likely originated from an Essene community.[1]

Underlying these divisions was a shared foundation: the written Torah functioned as foundational mythology, legal charter, and framework for Jewish identity and social organization.[4] Yet the Torah’s multiple interpretations generated the varieties of Judaism during the first century.[4] What united them—devotion to Jewish law—simultaneously divided them through competing visions of how that law should be lived.

[1] Thomas R. Shepherd, “Mark,” in Andrews Bible Commentary: New Testament, ed. Ángel Manuel Rodríguez (Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press, 2022), 1289–1290.
[2] J. Gordon McConville, “Biblical History,” in New Bible Commentary: 21st Century Edition, ed. D. A. Carson et al. (Leicester, England; Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1994), 38.
[3] Thomas D. Lea and David Alan Black, The New Testament: Its Background and Message (Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2003), 58.
[4] Burton L. Mack, A Myth of Innocence: Mark and Christian Origins (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2006), 34.