First-century Jews used various Hebrew texts and the LXX, early Christians weren't looking for "perfect" scriptures. Most early Christians were Greek-speaking, so LXX was primary. But Hebrew-speaking Jewish Christians might have referenced Hebrew texts. However, direct evidence is scarce. The NT authors mostly quote LXX. The NT itself shows flexibility in interpretation. Their concept of scripture wasn't about textual perfection but about its role in pointing to Christ. They reinterpreted existing texts rather than seeking a flawless manuscript.
First-century Jews did not use the MT as we know it today,
but they used Hebrew manuscripts that were proto-Masoretic (similar to the MT)
alongside other textual traditions (e.g., proto-Samaritan, DSS variants).
The Septuagint (LXX), the Greek translation of the Hebrew
Bible, was widely used by Hellenistic Jews (Greek-speaking Jews of the
diaspora) and early Christians. Below is evidence of its use, drawn from
historical sources, textual comparisons, and manuscript discoveries: Evidence for Early Christian Use of the
Septuagint
1. Historical Evidence for Hellenistic Jewish Use
- Letter
of Aristeas (2nd century BCE):
This pseudepigraphal work claims the Septuagint was commissioned by Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285–247 BCE) for the Library of Alexandria. While legendary in parts, it reflects the Jewish tradition of the LXX’s origin and its acceptance by Greek-speaking Jews. - Key
quote: "The laws of the Jews... were translated from the Hebrew
tongue into the Greek language."
- Philo
of Alexandria (1st century CE):
A Hellenistic Jewish philosopher, Philo praised the LXX as divinely inspired and described an annual festival on the island of Pharos (near Alexandria) celebrating its translation. - Key
quote: "They [the translators] became possessed, and, under
inspiration, wrote, not each several scribe something different, but the
same word for word, as though dictated to each by an invisible
prompter." (Life of Moses 2.37).
- Synagogue
Use:
Inscriptions and writings (e.g., the Theodotus Inscription in Jerusalem) confirm Greek-speaking synagogues used the LXX for public reading and study.
2. New Testament Evidence for Early Christian Use
The New Testament authors frequently quote the Old
Testament from the Septuagint, not the Hebrew Masoretic Text.
Examples include:
A. Matthew 1:23 (quoting Isaiah 7:14)
- Hebrew
(Masoretic Text): "A young woman [almah]
shall conceive."
- Septuagint
(LXX): "A virgin [parthenos] shall
conceive."
- Matthew’s
Greek: Uses parthenos (virgin), aligning with the LXX
to support Jesus’ virgin birth.
B. Acts 7:14 (quoting Genesis 46:27)
- Hebrew
(MT): "70 persons" went to Egypt.
- LXX:
"75 persons."
- Acts
7:14: Follows the LXX’s "75 souls."
C. Hebrews 10:5-7 (quoting Psalm 40:6-8)
- Hebrew
(MT): "You have given me an open ear."
- LXX:
"You have prepared a body for me."
- Hebrews:
Quotes the LXX’s "body" to connect Christ’s incarnation to the
psalm.
D. Romans 3:10-18 (quoting Psalms, Proverbs, Isaiah)
Paul stitches together multiple LXX passages (e.g., Psalm
14:1-3 LXX) to argue universal human sinfulness. The wording matches the LXX,
not the Hebrew.
3. Early Christian Writings
- Justin
Martyr (2nd century CE):
Defended Christianity by arguing that Jewish leaders altered the Hebrew text to obscure messianic prophecies, while Christians relied on the LXX (Dialogue with Trypho 68–73). - Origen’s
Hexapla (3rd century CE):
A six-column Bible comparing Hebrew, LXX, and other Greek translations, showing the LXX’s primacy in early Christian scholarship. - Church
Fathers:
Augustine and others regarded the LXX as authoritative. Augustine even argued it was superior to the Hebrew text (City of God 18.43).
4. Manuscript Evidence
- Dead
Sea Scrolls (3rd century BCE–1st century CE):
Greek fragments of the LXX (e.g., Leviticus and Deuteronomy) found at Qumran show its use among Hellenistic Jews. - Early
Christian Codices:
The Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus (4th century CE) include the LXX as their Old Testament, proving its adoption by the early Church. - Jewish
Greek Papyri:
Papyrus fragments of the LXX (e.g., Rylands Papyrus 458, 2nd century BCE Deuteronomy) confirm its circulation in Egypt.
5. Jewish Rejection of the LXX Post-70 CE
After Christianity adopted the LXX, Jewish communities
distanced themselves from it:
- Aquila’s
Greek Translation (2nd century CE): A literal Hebrew-to-Greek
translation replacing the LXX in synagogues.
- Rabbinic
Criticism: The Talmud (Megillah 9a) acknowledges the LXX’s
origins but critiques its Hellenistic influence.
6. Limited Use of Hebrew (Proto-MT) Texts
While most early Christians used the LXX, Hebrew-speaking
Jewish Christians may have referenced Hebrew manuscripts (proto-MT or
DSS-like texts):
- Matthew’s
Gospel: Occasionally reflects Hebrew traditions. For example, Matthew
2:15 interprets Hosea 11:1 ("Out of Egypt I
called my son") christologically. The Hebrew text refers to Israel’s
Exodus, but Matthew recontextualizes it for Jesus, suggesting familiarity
with Hebrew interpretive methods.
- Dead
Sea Scrolls (DSS): Show textual plurality (proto-MT, proto-Samaritan,
LXX-aligned). Early Jewish Christians might have engaged with these
diverse Hebrew traditions.
7. Early Christians Were Not Seeking "Perfect
Scriptures"
The idea of a "perfect" or standardized Bible was
foreign to the first-century Church. Key evidence includes:
A. Flexible Interpretation
- Christological
Reinterpretation: Early Christians read the OT through the lens of
Jesus’ life and resurrection, often prioritizing theological meaning over
literal textual accuracy.
- Example: Galatians
3:16 uses the singular "seed" (σπέρμα, sperma)
in Genesis 12:7 to argue for Christ as the fulfillment
of Abraham’s promise, a move dependent on the LXX’s Greek phrasing.
B. Oral Tradition and Apostolic Authority
- 2
Thessalonians 2:15: Paul urges believers to hold to traditions taught
"by word of mouth or by letter," elevating oral teaching
alongside written texts.
- 1
Corinthians 11:23-26: Paul transmits the Last Supper narrative orally,
not citing written Gospels.
C. Diversity of Early Christian Writings
- Fluid
Canon: First-century Christians used texts later excluded from the NT
(e.g., Didache, Shepherd of Hermas). The NT canon
was not finalized until the 4th century.
- Codex
Sinaiticus (4th century CE) includes Barnabas and Shepherd
of Hermas, showing ongoing flexibility.
D. No Concept of "Inerrancy"
- Early
Christians viewed Scripture as useful (2 Timothy 3:16)
but subordinate to the Holy Spirit and community discernment (John 14:26;
1 Corinthians 2:13).
8. Contrast with Later Developments
- Masoretic
Standardization: After the destruction of the Second Temple (70 CE),
rabbinic Judaism began standardizing Hebrew texts, culminating in the MT.
- Christian
Canonization: The Church later formalized the NT canon in response to
heresies (e.g., Marcionism) and disputes, shifting toward a
"closed" Bible.
Conclusion
- First-century
Christians primarily used the LXX, with limited engagement of Hebrew
traditions (proto-MT/DSS).
- They
prioritized Christological interpretation and apostolic
authority over textual perfection.
- The
concept of "perfect Scripture" (inerrancy, closed canon) emerged
later, driven by theological and historical needs.
The early Church’s vitality lay in its living
witness to Jesus, not in a fixed, flawless text—a perspective radically
different from later Jewish and Christian textual rigidities.